Writing Grammar

Noun

Word or set of works for a person, place, thing, or idea.

• compound noun - noun of more than one word (tennis court, gas station)
• Common Nouns - general class of people, places, things, ideas
• Proper Nouns - capitalized, specific
• Collective Nouns - denotes group of individuals (assembly, family, crew)
• Singular vs plural nouns
• Regular nouns - nouns that form their plurals by adding either the letter -s or -es (dog/dogs)
• Irregular nouns - child, nucleus, tooth, etc.

Verb

A word or set of words that shows action (rans, is going, has been painting), feeling (loves, envies), or state of being (am, are, is, have been, was, seem).

• linking verb - state of being verbs (to be, look, appear, act - followed by adjective)
  • "You look happy."
  • "We feel fine."
  • "He went ballistic."
• main verb / phrasal verb
• helping verb - helps clarify meaning
  • eg: is, shall, must, do, has, can, keep, get, start, help, etc.
  • "had been breaking down"
    • "breaking down" - phrasal verb
    • "had been" - helping verbs

Subject

Noun, pronoun, or set of words that performs the verb

1. Find the verb first; subject is who or what performed the verb
2. Sentences can have more than one subject and verb
3. If a verb follows to, it's called an infinite, it's not the main verb. Main verb comes before or after the infinite.
   1. He is trying to leave. (infinite is "to leave", main verb is "trying")
   2. To leave was his wish. (main verb is "was")

Split infinitive - inserting a word between the to and the verb in an infinite. Not wrong but tends to be clumsy and unnecessary. Example: to gladly pay, to not go.

Any request or command has the understood subject "you".

Subject-verb-agreement

Singular subject takes singular verb, plural subject takes plural verb.

Rule 1 A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. Key rule for understanding subjects.

A bouquet (singular subject) of flowers (plural). Verb should be singular.

Rule 2 Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, neither/nor, use singular verb.

My aunt or my uncle is arriving today.

Rule 3 The verb in or, either/or, neither/nor agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it.

Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf. Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

Rule 4 Use a plural verb with two or more subjects when connect by and.

A car and a bike are...

Exception is when subject is compound noun (treated as single unit)

Breaking and entering is against the law.

Rule 5 When subject is separated from the verb with along with, as well as, besides, not, etc., ignore them. They're not part of the subject.

Excitement, as well as nerviousness, is the cause of her shaking.

Rule 6 Words that indicate portions - percent, a lot, majority, some, all, etc. - use the noun that follows of (reverse of rule 1).

Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.

Rule 7 Sentences that begin with here or there, the subject follows the verb.

There are four hurdles to jump. Here is the key.

Rule 8 Use singular verb for distances, periods of time, sums of money when considered as a unit.

Three miles is too far to walk.

Example where it's not treated as a unit:

Ten dollars (i.e., single dollar bills) were scattered...

Rule 9 Some collective nouns (family, couple, staff, audience) may take either form depending on their use - if it's a unit or distinct members of a collection.

The staff is in a meeting (singular) The staff disagree about the outcome (plural - staff members acting as individuals)

Rule 10 The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact. This is called subjunctive mood, used to express things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. Subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects with plural verbs.

If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.

In this case, Joe is singular, verb is plural. But Joe isn't actually here, it's wishful.

Clauses & Phrases

Clause - group of words that contain a subject and verb.

Independent clause - a simple sentence that can stand on its own

She is hungry

Dependent clause can't stand on its own, needs and independent clause to complete. Usually begins with although, since, if, when, because...

Although she is hungry...

Pronouns

A word that takes the place of a noun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody)

Three types of pronouns

1. subject (he)
2. object (him)
3. possessive (his)

When who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun.

Correct: It is I who am sorry. Incorrect: It is I who is sorry. Correct: It is he who is mistaken. Correct: It is you who are mistaken. Incorrect: It is you who is mistaken.

Pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject.

He is the only one who is always on time. They are the only ones who are always on time.

Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either, neither) require singular verbs. This is usually overlooked for pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of.

Each of the girls sings well. Either of us is capable of doing the job. Neither of them is available.

Adjunct - a thing added to something else as a supplementary rather than an essential part. In grammar, a word or phrase used to amplify or modify the meaning of another word (adjective). Below, each is an adjunct.

The women each gave their approval.

To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.

Astrid is as smart as (she/her) Astrid is as smart as she is. She is correct. Zoe is taller than (I/me) Zoe is taller than I am. I is correct.

Posessive pronouns (yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, whose) never need apostrophes. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for "it is" or "it has".

Reflexive pronouns - pronouns that end in -self or -selves, used when both the subject and object of a verb are the same person/thing. There are 9:

1. myself
2. yourself
3. yourselves
4. himself
5. herself
6. themselves
7. itself
8. oneself
9. ourselves

I did that to myself. Joe helped himself.

Avoid they and their with singular pronouns.

Correct: Someone brought her lunch Incorrect: Someone brought their lunch.

Who vs Whom

Use the he/him method to determine correct usage: he = who him = whom

Who/whom wrote the letter? He wrote the letter. Therefore, who is correct. Who/whom should I vote for? Should I vote for him? Therefore, whom is correct.

Whoever vs whomever

he = whoever him = whomever

Presence of whoever/whomever indicates a dependent clause.

Give it to whoever/whomever asks for it first. He asks for it first, not him asks for it first. Whoever is correct.

When the entire whoever/whomever clause is the subject of the verb, analyze the clause to determine usage.

Whoever is elected will serve a four-year term. Whomever you elect will serve a four-year term.

Who, that, which

Rule 1: Who and sometimes that refer to people. That and which refer to groups or things.

Rule 2: That introduces an essential clause which adds information that is vital to the point of the sentence.

I do not trust products that claim "all natural ingredients".

Rule 3: Which introduces a nonessential clause, which adds supplementary information.

The product claiming "all natural ingredients," which appeared in the Sunday paper, is on sale.

Rule 4: If that has already appeared in a sentence, use which to introduce the next clause, whether it is essential or not. Done to avoid awkward formations.

That which doesn't kill you makes you stronger

Adjectives & Adverbs

Adjective - word that modifies (describes) a noun or pronoun.

That is a cute puppy. That puppy looks cute.

Adverb - word that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

He speaks slowly. (modified verb speaks) He is especially clever. (modifies adjective clever) He speaks all too slowly. (modifies adverb slowly)

Adverb answers how, when, where, or to what extend (how often, how much).

Many adverbs end in -ly. Generally, if a word can have -ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an adverb.

Adverbs that answer the question how sometimes cause grammatical problems, especially for linking verbs such as taste, small, look, feel that pertains to the senses.

Roses smell sweet (not sweetly - smell is a linking verb which requires an adjective to modify roses. The roses don't do the smelling.)

The word good is an adjective, whose adverb equivalent is well.

You did a good job. (the job is good) You did the job well. (describes how the job was done) You smell good (describes the fragrance, not how you smell) You smell well for someone with a cold (you actively smell, adverb)

The word well can be an adjective. When referring to health, use well.

You feel well

Three forms of adjectives:

1. positive (sweet)
2. comparative (sweeter)
3. superlative (sweetest)

There's also degrees of adverbs. Don't drop the -ly in comparative form.

Incorrect: Talk quieter. Correct: Talk more quietly.

When this, that, these, and those are followed by a noun, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun, they're pronouns.

This house is for sale. (this is an adjective) This is for sale. (this is a pronoun)

Prepositions

A word that indicates location (in, near, beside) or some other relationship (about, after, besides) between a noun or pronoun and other parts of the sentence. Must go with a related noun or pronoun - called the object of the preposition.

Let's meet before noon. (before = preposition, noon = object) We've never met before. (no object, before is an adverb)

Preposition generally goes before its noun/pronoun. Don't use extra prepositions when the meaning is clear without them.

Correct: Where did you get this? Incorrect: Where did you get this at? Correct: Where did he go? Incorrect: Where did he go to?

The preposition like means similar to or similarly to. Should be followed by an object of the preposition, not by a subject and verb. Avoid like when a verb is involed.

Correct: You look like your mother. Incorrect: You look like your mother does.

Instead of like, use as, as if, as though, or the way when following a comparison with a subject and verb.

Correct: You look the way your mother does. Incorrect: You look like your mother does. Correct: Do as I ask. Incorrect: Do like I ask.

Do not use as unless there is a verb involed.

Incorrect: I, as most people, try to use good grammar. Correct: I, like most people,... Correct: I, as most people do,...

Follow different with the preposition from

Incorrect: You're different than I am. Correct: You're different from me.

Use into rather than in to express motion toward something. Use in to tell locations.

Swam in the pool. I walked into the house.

Punctuation

Comma

Oxford comma - when the last comma in a series comes before and or or. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when they are interchangeable.

He is a strong, healthy man. (strong and healthy are interchangeable) We stayed at an expensive summer resort. (We wouldn't say summer expensive resort).

Comma splice - a form of run-on sentence where two independent clauses joined togethby a comma instead of period.

He walked all the way home, he shut the door.

Use a comma before connectors and, or, but to join independent clauses.

Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence.

No, you can't have it.

Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.)

I am, by the way, very nervous about it.

Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of endearment, or title of the person directly addressed.

Yes, old friend, I will. Good day, Captain. Joe, will you do that assignment for me?

Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year. Always put one after the year.

It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition. It was in a June 2003 article (no comma necessary, just month and year).

Use comma to separate city from state. Always put one after the state.

I'm from the Arkon, Ohio, area.

If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that follows is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.

Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. My brother Bill is here. (I have more than one brother; Bill is the one that's here) My brother, Bill, is here. (My only brother is the subject, Bill is nonessential)

Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations. Optional for one-word quotations. Required if quote is before the attribution.

"Why," I asked, "don't you care?" He said "Stop." "Stop," he said.

Semicolons

Indicate an audible pause like a comma. Slightly longer than a comma but short of a period's full stop.

Semicolon can replace a period to narrow the gap between closely linked sentences.

Use semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more units contain commas.

The conference has people who have come from Silver Spring, Maryland; Orange County, California; andother places as well.

Colons

A colon means "that is to say" or "here's what I mean." Not to be used interchangeably with semicolon.

Use a colon to introduce a series of items. Do not capitalize the first item after the colon unless it's a proper noun.

I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.

Avoid using a colon before a list when it directly follows a verb or preposition.

Incorrect: I want: butter, sugar, and flour.

When listing items one by one, one per line, following a colon, capitalization and ending punctuation are oponal when using single words or phrases preceded by letters, numbers, or bullet points. If each point is a complete sentence, capitalize the first word and end with appropriate punctuation.

I want an assistent who can do the following: (a) input data (b) write reports (c) complete tax forms These are the rules:

1. Do not run.
2. Did you remember your towel?
3. Have fun!

Use a colon rather than comma to follow salutation in a business letter

Formal: Dear Ms. Rodriguez: Informal: Dear Dave,

Quotation Marks

Use double quotation marks to set off a direct (word-for-word) quotation.

Either quotation marks or italics are customary for titles: magzines, books, plays, films, songs, pems, article titles, chapter titles, etc.

Periods and commas ALWAYS go inside quotation marks.

Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations.

Use quotation marks for technical terms, terms usen an unusual way, or other expressions that vary from standard usage.

It's an oil-extraction method known as "fracking." (technical) I had a visit from my "friend" the tax man. (sarcasm)

When quoted material runs more than one paragraph, start each new paragraph with opening quotation marks, but do not use closing quotation marks until the end of the passage.

Parenthesis and brackets

Parentheses is used to enclose information that clarifies or is used as an aside.

Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside.

Parenthesis are not part of the subject.

Awkward: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome. Correct: Joe (accompanied by his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

Brackets are used exclusively within quoted materials. They are interruptions, used to explain or comment on the quotation. When we see them, we know they've been added by someone else.

"Bill shook hands with [his son] Al."

When quoting somethign that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and enclosed in brackets. Sic means "thus" in Latin is shorthand for, "This is exactly what the original material says."

She wrote, "I would rather die then [sic] be seenearing the same outfit as my sister."

In formal writing, brackets are often used to maintain the integrity of both a quotation and the sentences others use it in. In example below, Lincoln's memorable phrase came midsentence, so we capitalize the T even though the original was not.

"[T]he better angles of our nature," gave a powerful ending to Lincoln's first inaugural address.

Apostrophes

Used to show possession. To show possession with a singular noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter s. For plural nouns, the s can be omitted.

a woman's hat

Many common nouns end in the letter s (lens, cactus, bus). Also proper nouns (Mr. Jones, Texas, Christmas). No right or wrong answer, but newspapers/magazines use apostrophe + s for common nouns and just apostrophe for proper nouns.

the class's hours Mr. Jones' golf clubs

For regular nouns (nouns made plural with -s or -es), use apostrophe without s to show plural possession.

guys' night out

Don't use apostrophe + s to make a regular noun plural, unless when a word is not normally a noun. Could be added for clarity.

Here are some do's and don'ts.

If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe+s after the second name only. Unless one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use possessive form for both.

Cesar and Maribel's home is constructed of redwood. Maribel's and my home is constructed of redwood.

In cases of separate rather than joint posession, use possessive form for both.

Cesar's and Maribel's homes are both constructed of redwood.

Use apostrophe with contractions

doesn't, wouldn't, it's, can't, you've

Amounts of time or money are sometimes used as possessive adjectivess that require apostrophe.

three days' leave

Personal pronouns (hers, ours, yours, theirs, its, whose, and oneself) never take an apostrophe.

Hyphens

Hyphens and dashes are different. Dashes are longer. There should never be spaces between hyphens.

Hyphens' main purpose is to glue words together.

off-campus (an off-campus apartment) state-of-the-art

When a compund adjective follows a noun, a hyphen may not be necessary.

The apartment is off campus.

The adverb very and adverbs ending in -ly are not hyphenated.

Incorrect: the very-elegant watch Incorrect: the finely-tuned watch

Above rule does not apply to adjectives.

Correct; the friendly-looking dog Correct: the family-owned cafe

Often used to tell the ages of people and things.

two-year-old daughter

When using numbers, hyphenate spans or estimates of time, distance, or other quantities. No spaces in between.

3:15-3:45 p.m. 1999-2005

Hyphenate compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine

thirty-two children

Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions

two-thirds of registered voters

Hyphenate with prefix re- when omitting would cause confusion

Will she recover from her illness? She has re-covered the sofa twice.

Dashes

hyphen: - en dash: – em dash: —

Dashes, like commas, semicolons, colons, ellipses, and parentheses, indicate added emphasis, an interruption, or an abrupt change of thought.

You are the friend, the only friend, who offered to help me. You are the friend — the only friend — who offered to help me.

Ellipses

An ellipsis (ellipses plural) consists of three dots. Used when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted passage. Saves space or remove material that is less relevant, useful in getting right to the point without delay or distraction.

"Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill." "Today...we vetoed the bill."

A common way to delete the beginning of a sentence

"...[A]fter hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill."

Question marks

Only after a direct question. Don't use for indirect questions (statements that contain questions) and rhetorical questions (statements/demands in the form of a question that don't require or expect an answer).

Will you go with me? I wonder if he would go with me. Would you kids knock it off. Why don't you take a break.